Tang Yijie
CONFUCIANISM’S CONTEMPORARY SIGNIFICANCE
14 December 2006
During
most of the 20th century Confucius was held in disrepute by
progressive folk in China. His doctrines were taken to be inherently
reactionary, supporting a system that kept China weak and backward. The
vituperation against the Sage reached a climax in the early 1970s, in the
waning days of the Cultural Revolution. Confucius’s reputation has improved
since the death of Mao and especially, it would seem, since the turn of the 21st
century, and once again he is celebrated by China’s ruling elites. Much of the
new approval is perhaps superficial, praising Confucius more for being a
world-famous Chinese than for any particular contribution he made and accepting
is teachings insofar as they are compatible with current conventions and
banalities. Tang Yijie, a professor of philosophy at Peking University, has a
somewhat deeper appreciation of the contemporary meaning of Confucius, showing
how the Confucian approach to life might contribute to current problems
relevant to the relationship of the individual to nature, to society, and to
his own personality.
There is an interesting puzzle about the
author. Tang has been an outspoken defender of Confucius since the 1980s, but
in the 1970s he was apparently a member of the “Liang Xiao” writing group (the
term could in itself be a person’s name, but it is also homophonous with the
Chinese for “two schools,” referring to Peking and Tsinghua universities in the
country’s capital). (See Yue Daiyun and Carolyn Wakeman, To the Storm: The
Odyssey of a Revolutionary Chinese Woman (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1985).) This group was affiliated
with the radical Gang of Four and its main purpose was to attack enemies of the
Gang under the guise of vicious attacks on Confucius. Perhaps at times in his
life Tang has been something of an opportunist. But this may also reinforce the
suspicion some have had from time to time that the 1970s’ anti-Confucius
campaign was more complicated than it seemed. For while the campaign was
certainly sponsored by the radicals, the notions it condemned Confucius for
seem eerily close to the ideas one would attribute to the radicals themselves.
1. Two Reasons for Confucianism’s Contemporary Significance
I have discussed the theme of Confucianism’s contemporary significance many times: During the 1980s. the 1990s, and into the 21st century. And it’s not just me. More and more scholars are discussing this theme. Why?
I believe there
are two reasons. Number one, our Chinese nation （民族）is
on the eve of a great national revival. At this juncture we must review our
historical cultural tradition.
As
we are preparing to stride into a new millennium, the thinkers of the world are
responding to the call of a new “axial age.” This demands that we give greater
weight to a reviewing and developing the thought and wisdom of ancient times,
looking back on the source of our cultural development, responding to the new
diversification in world culture.
Number
two, the new century has brought out the demand that our country establish a
“harmonious society. Mr. Fei Xiaotong once brought up the question of “cultural
self-consciousness.” In building a harmonious society we also need that kind of
cultural self-awareness.
This
situation requires that in studying the history and development of our national
culture, it is necessary to respond to the new forces of world cultural
development, that is, the force of the new axial age. In responding to our
country’s goal of a “harmonious society,” there is a demand for cultural
self-awareness. In a new historical period of this sort, what questions
confront all of human society as well as our own society? What kind of powers
do we need to solve the problems that will promote the early advent of this new
axial age and the harmonious society.
I
believe that in order to analyze “Confucianism” we must approach it from
different perspectives. Let’s approach Confucianism from three different
corners: namely, the traditional governmental (正統) Confucianism, philosophical (道統) Confucianism, and academic (學統) Confucianism. For a long
time Confucianism was joined together with China’s historical political system.
There is no doubt it had an important function in feudal totalitarian despotic
rule. The idea of philosophic Confucianism points to something common in any
systematic historical tradition or school of scholarship or culture. There is
bound to be a tradition in any scholarly culture, whether in the west or in
China. In China there are the three schools of Confucianism, Buddhism, and
Taoism; and each has its traditions. Academic Confucianism points to the
scholarly tradition, to its scholarly concepts. Here, perhaps, the face value
of Confucianism is rather great; it is able to provide relatively significant
intellectual resources to human society.
2. The contradictions between Man and Nature
What
are the great questions facing human society today? I believe they all go back
to three great questions: the contradictions between man and nature; the
contradictions between man and man (or man and society); and man’s internal
contradictions. How can these contradictions be resolved? These three questions
are of great relevance to the current building of a “harmonious society” and
the achievement of “peaceful coexistence” among human societies. I believe that
the concepts of our country’s Confucianism—the “unity of Heaven man”; the
“unity of others with myself”; and the “unity of body and mind,” those three
great philosophical themes—may provide us with precious guidance in resolving
the above three great contradictions and constitute intellectual resources
deserving of special attention. Naturally I am not saying that in answering
these questions we can rely solely on Confucian thinking and nothing else.
On
the question of the contradictions between man and nature, in 1992, 1,575
prominent scientists published a “Warning to the Human Race.” It opened with
the assertion that humanity and nature were on a collision course. I believe
that this showed a profound awareness that if human society continues along the
way it is going there will be a severe crisis. The high degree of development
of science and technology have brought people much happiness; but man, who is a
part of nature, has in his conquest of nature obtained not only a great number
of tools that destroy nature but also weapons that will destroy him himself.
The limitless development and destruction of nature and the waste of resources
not only destroys the natural harmony but also the harmony between man and nature.
This has brought about conditions posing a serious threat to human existence.
This situation is related to the western style of thought that poses a
distinction between the subjective and the objective . Western thinking from
the axial age of Plato onward has assumed a dualism between the subjective and
the objective (for example, mind-matter; Heaven-man). The Chinese style of
thinking is fundamentally different, and has taken a position of the “unity of
Heaven and man” (or the inseparability of the subjective and the objective).
One
of the sources of Chinese philosophy may be said to be the Zhou Book of Changes
(周易).
The “Bamboo Writings of Chu” unearthed in Jingmen in Hebei province in 1993
record a very important concept: “Changes are the way to comprehend the Way of
Heaven, the Way of Man.” That is to say, Changes is the unifying thread
joining the study of the Way of Heaven (natural laws) and the Way of Man (the
ordering of human society). In other words, from ancient times China has
realized that the study of “Heaven” cannot but involve “man,” and likewise the
study of “man” cannot but involve “Heaven.” This is the idea of the “Unity of
Heaven and Man.” From the perspective of the development of human society, the
first problem people ran into was the relationship between “man” and “nature”
(Heaven), since human survival is bound up with the natural world. Therefore
China from ancient times there has always been the question of the relationship
of Heaven and Man. Naturally from ancient times onward there have been many
different ways proposed to treat this issue: some scholars advocate following
the flow of nature; some believe that we must make use of Heaven to serve man:
“control the decrees of Heaven and put them to use”; some assert that “in the
exchange of Heaven and man, each overcomes the other”; so forth and so on. But
the mainstream of Confucianism proposes the “unity of Heaven and man.” This
means that Heaven cannot be separated from man and man cannot be separated from
Heaven.”
From
the notion of this unity which is expressed first in the Book of Changes, we have a kind of model for thinking about the current
contradiction between man nature, and from this we can learn three things.
1. The “unity of Heaven and man” is a model for thinking. It demands
that we do not put man and Heaven in opposition to each other. Man is a part of
Heaven. “Man obtains his life first from Heaven.” If we destroy Heaven we are
also destroying ourselves and we will suffer the consequences. Therefore, man
should not only “know Heaven” (understand nature in order to make better use of
it) but should also “fear Heaven” (hold the natural world in respect, taking
the “protection of Heaven” as a sacred responsibility). Nowadays people stress
only “knowing Heaven,” meaning making use of Heaven, conquering Heaven, even
needlessly destroying Heaven; but they don’t know to hold Heaven in respect.
This, no doubt, is an extreme manifestation of “scientism,” the notion that
science is omnicompetent. The unity of “knowing Heaven” and “fearing Heaven” is
a manifestation of the unity of Heaven and Man; it shows that man has an
internal responsibility toward Heaven. The philosophical concept of the unity
of Heaven and man shows the complex relationship between heaven and man. It not
only implies that man should know Heaven but also that man should respect
Heaven, since Heaven has its sacred nature. Perhaps this is because Chinese
Confucianism was not a religion in the ordinary sense, but it did have a
certain religious nature to it. Perhaps because of this in China Confucianism
can play something of the role of religion. It holds that the dependence of man
on Heaven has an “internal” moral character that, through cultivation, can lead
to a “transcendence,” a “going beyond the mundane to achieve sagehood.”
2.
We cannot consider the relationship between Heaven and man to be an
externally-imposed relationship. This is because “Heaven is man” and “man is
Heaven.” Heaven and man cannot be separated from each other. Man cannot be
separate from Heaven, nor Heaven from man. Apart from Heaven man cannot exist.
Apart from man, there is no way for the reason of Heaven to be expressed, for
who would take up the responsibilities implied by the Way of Heaven? A
recognition of this kind of internal relationship between Heaven and man is a
special trait of Chinese philosophy.
3. Why do we say there is an internal necessary connection between
Heaven and man in Confucian philosophy? It is perhaps that from ancient times
onward, at least from the western Zhou, there has been the tradition in Chinese
thought that “Heaven hears as my people hear, Heaven sees as my people see.”
This has been the conception from Confucius and Mencius down through the Cheng
brothers, Zhu Xi, Lu Xiangshan, and Wang Yangming. Zhu Xi has a theory that may
reflect a consistency in Confucius’s “study of Goodness” (仁學). He says: Goodness (仁) is the mind of Heaven to
produce things in abundance. In humans it is the mind tenderly to love others
and do well by things; it embraces the four virtues and holds together the four
beginnings.” The Way of Heaven is to produce without ceasing. With its mind
informed by love Heaven successfully brings all things into existence and
nurtures them. So man must model himself on Heaven and be loving toward others
and do well by all things that are. This is because “Heaven and man are one
body.” Man is man because he receives the essence of Heaven, so while man lives
in the world he must accord with the mind of Heaven to produce things in
abundance and have the mind tenderly to love others and do well by things. The
mind of Heaven and the mind of man are the same mind. Man has the
responsibility of bringing about the Way of Heaven. The meaning of human life
is in the embodiment of the Way of Heaven; the value of human life is in
accomplishing the will of Heaven, all of this because Heaven and man are
internally related.
In the above discussions I have approached the unity of Heaven and man
from a philosophical perspective. That is the only way to get to its real heart
and value. It is a world view and a style of thought. Its significance is that
man has been given a responsibility he cannot evade. Man must become one with
Heaven (be raised to the height of Heaven) and so bring about man’s own
self-transcendence to arrive at the ideal of the unity of Heaven and man.
Of course, the Confucian “unity of Heaven and man” cannot directly
resolve one by one all contemporary issues having to do with the
“contradictions between man and nature.” But as a philosophic concept and a
mode of thought that does not dichotomize man and Heaven but treats them as
part of the same frame and with an internal relationship between them can
without a doubt give some positive direction toward the resolution of the
relationship between Heaven and man.
3. Contradictions Between Man and Man
Today
the contradictions in human society between man and man are even more complex
than those between man and nature. They involve contradictions between the self
and others; between the person and society; between states; between nations;
between regions. For example, the pursuit of goods and power, the fight over
natural resources, the growth of possessions and ambition lead to opposition
and war between states, nations, and regions, and also to imperial hegemony,
terrorism, so forth and so on. Too much attention to the pursuit of money and
material enjoyment, particularly the greed and corruption of rulers and the
oppression of the common people lead to tension in the relations among
individuals, social demoralization, the growth of gangs and factions, the
proliferation of black societies—so forth, so on. Is Confucianism able to
provide meaningful ways of thinking about the many and varied ills of
contemporary society?
I
believe that perhaps the Confucian theories concerning Goodness (or humanity)
may establish a harmonious relationship between individuals, and that this may
be extended to relations among states, nations, and regions. This could have
major significance in building a “harmonious society.”
Ever
since [Samuel P.] Huntington presented his thesis on the conflict of civilizations
in 1993 there has been much discussion of this among scholars from all
countries. In trying to figure out how to eliminate the conflicts and even wars
that arise because of cultural conflicts, perhaps Confucius’s notion of
“harmony without sameness” might be an extremely important principle. The
highest ideal in traditional Chinese culture is that the “ten thousand things
grow together without harming each other; their ways move in parallel without
mutual interference” (from the Mean, 中庸). The ten thousand things
growing together with their ways moving in parallel expresses lack of sameness;
they do not damage or interfere with each other—this is harmony. This can be a
rich source of ideas for coexistence within plurality.
Different
nations and states can go through cultural exchanges and dialogues. If there is
exchange or conversation that leads to a certain kind of common understanding,
in a certain sense that is a kind of process of moving from difference to some
sort of commonality. This kind of mutual commonality does not mean that one
side exterminates the other nor does it mean that one side becomes assimilated
into the other. It means the search for points where different cultures come
together and from this base are able to develop together. This is the working
of harmony. Different nations and different states, because of geographic,
historical, and various random factors develop different cultural traditions.
It is because there are these different traditions that human culture is so
rich and colored; moreover, these different traditions supplement and move
among each other in the long river of human history. Differences of culture may
lead to conflict, even to war. But we should not think that difference
necessarily leads to conflict and war. Especially under today’s conditions of
advanced science and technology there is the danger that large-scale warfare
would lead to humanity’s self-annihilation. Therefore, we must diligently seek
through dialogue among different cultures to bring about points of harmony.
There are now many scholars in China and the west who recognize the importance
of seeking mutual understanding among different cultures through the channels
of dialogue. Whether it is Habermas’s principles of justice and solidarity or
Gadamer’s thesis of broad dialogue, there is a recognition of the need for
harmony without sameness as a premise. It is only if we recognize that nations
and states with different cultural traditions can find points of harmony will
it be possible for them to obtain equality of rights and duties; it is only
under such conditions that “broad dialogue” can “truly and smoothly accomplish
its ends.” Thus, Confucius’s principle of “harmony without sameness,” based on
the notion that “harmony is the most valuable, should become a basic principle
for handling relations among different cultures.
4. Contradictions within Our Selves
If
we can use the Confucian concept of the unity of Heaven and man to supply
material relevant to the contradictions
between man and nature and the unity of self and others to resolve the
contradictions among men, then we may use the “integration of the inner and the
outer” to moderate the contradictions within our own persons.
There
are all sorts of pressures in modern society. Particularly the unlimited
pursuit of sensual enjoyment brings about a loss of psychological balance and a
division in the human personality. The psychological imbalance induces
spiritual disturbances, alcoholism, murder, suicide, so forth. This distortion
of the human heart and mind has become a sort of social disease with a serious
effect on social peace. The reason is a withering away of morality, so that
people no longer have a sense of harmony of body and mind. Many perceptive
scholars have proposed theories and policies about how to cure this kind of
condition. From the perspective of Chinese traditional culture there is a great
deal of attention given this in the Confucian practice of the cultivation of
the person and the nurture of the mind.
Proper
governance of society must depend upon proper governance of the person. How
well someone is able to govern himself depends upon his self-cultivation of
morality. The standard of whether a morality is appropriate or not depends upon
whether or not it accords with the Tao, the Way. The “Way” here refers to the
“Way prevailing under Heaven,” namely, harmony. And in order to achieve harmony
in society one must have a “humane and loving heart.”
Here
we must link individual moral self-cultivation with the concept of Goodness or
humanity (仁),
a thread running throughout all of Confucian teaching. The Confucian notion of
self cultivation is not without its purpose: it is for the sake of “putting in
order the family,” “governing the country,” bring peace to all under Heaven”:
in other words, it is to build a “harmonious society.” The Book of Rites
records the ideal of the society of Great Harmony; it involves building a
pluralistic society with harmony in politics, economy, and culture. The
Confucians base the building of a harmonious society on the moral cultivation
of the person. Thus, Confucians give great attention to personal cultivation in
both its internal and external aspects.
Confucian
self-cultivation has its goal. The Book
of Changes says, “Make use of personal calming in order to honor virtue.”
An individual undergoes self-cultivation in order to elevate his spirit and to
“set his mind on Heaven and earth, establish his life’s destiny, and continue
to study to achieve sagehood, so that all things in the world are at peace.” It
is in order to “establish the great root and so carry out the Way.” As far as
the individual is concerned, he will be at peace with himself both in his
interior thoughts and emotions and in his external relations. The Confucians
believe that in order to achieve harmony between the interior and the exterior
it is necessary to “bring peace and calm to the person and establish destiny.”
Therefore, Zhu Xi says, “If a person can be centered within himself, even
though the world at large is in chaos, the inner world, its Heaven and earth
and ten thousand things, remains peaceful and unharmed. If someone is unable to
attain this, even though there is order in the world at large, within oneself
one will be perturbed, even if no harm comes to him from without. It’s the same
for a country or a family.”
If
we in our internal and external states can be centered and in harmony, the
chaos of a disordered world cannot disturb out inner peace. If we are not
centered and harmonious in our internal and external states, even if there is a
very well-ordered world outside, we will still be troubled, worried, perturbed.
We must work hard at cultivating our own virtue whether the world at large is
in chaos or is in order. In this way we can fulfill our life’s duty and when it
is time to leave the world we can go with a sense of peace and fulfillment.
Confucians
consistently give great attention to peace and calmness of the person and the
establishment of destiny. This is a demand of self-cultivation. In this way we
can bring harmony to our own hearts and minds and to our internal state and its
external manifestations. Our words and actions will accord with the “morality
of being human.” And in this way our persons will be at peace and our destiny
established. We must eliminate all the obstacles in the way of our personal
harmony. It is not easy to carry out the Confucians’ “morality of being human,”
but this is something people should ardently strive for. But the purpose of
achieving this personal peace is to bring about social harmony.
Sima
Qian says: “For one today to make a record of the Way of the Ancients is to
make for ourselves a mirror; it is not that the two ages are necessarily
identical in all things.” We have been reviewing the thought of Confucius and
his school in order to find out whether it contains resources significant for
human society of the present time. This is without a doubt something important.
But the thought and ideas of the sages and worthies of ancient times are not
able fully to resolve all the problems of the present time; nor do they all
accord with the demands of contemporary society. They can only show us a path
for thinking, hints on how to make use of these resources, giving us a new base
for addressing the concerns of the present time. It is in this way that they
can make a contribution toward the building of a harmonious human society.
“Though Zhou is an ancient state, its Mandate is ever-new” (Book of Songs). Our Chinese nation is an
ancient nation with 5000 years of history and culture. Our mission is to assure
that our society constantly renews itself and to make contributions to the
whole of mankind.
Guangming
Ribao. 14 December 2006.