Twenty Three Years: A Study of the Prophetic Career of Mohammed, Ali Dashti (Translated from Persian by F.R.C. Bagley), George Allen and Unwin, 1985
Dashti says that although more information about Muhammad is available than any other great men of history before him, there is a lack of "objective and rational" book about him which is free of "preconceptions, suppositions and fanaticisms." Muhammad is turned into a superhuman figure by presenting fantasies as miracles, while ample evidence of his humanity is ignored. He gives some historical examples of fabrication of history and mythification. Some of the examples which he cites, if presented out of context would certainly offend devout Muslims. Dashti believes Muhammad's greatness and genius stands unequaled in history especially when the situation and circumstances under which he lived are considered.
Dashti notes the tendency of Muslim writers, in their zeal to emphasize changes brought about by Islam, to depict the conditions in Mecca and rest of Arabia darker than they really were. Based on research of some modern Muslim scholars (page 14), the reaction against idolatory had begun in the second half of the sixth century. This was probably due to the presence of Jewish tribes and work of some thinking men called "hanifs." Monotheism was not a novelty, some of the prophets mentioned in the Quran are: Hud among the people of Ad, Saleh amont the people of Thamud, and Shoayab in Medyan. Arabic sources mention several preachers who appealed to the people to renounce idolatory (page 15). Dashti produces quotations from some pre-Islamic poets/preachers which could have been composed by Muslims. Dashti ends this section by noting that the modern Arabic scholars disagree whether the poetry is genuinly pre-Islamic. He however believes that there is adequate evidence which points to disillusionment with paganism and movement towards monotheism.
Dashti sees prophethood as mental and spiritual genius of extraordinary individuals and rejects traditional understanding of principle of prophethood. He asks: if people are not going to believe because God has has confused them (6:110) and he has willed them so (6:107), what purpose does it serve to send a prophet to guide them. If idolators were not to blame for their beliefs, how can a merciful God cast them in hell for eternity.
[I dont think there is anything new in this argument and I am sure there are a number of Muslim scholars who have presented a counter argument.]
Before his call to prophethood, Muhammad carried on long discussions with Chrisian monks and priests during his business visits to Syria. He also met with a number of followers of the Scriptures while he was in Mecca. He was in touch with Khadija's (his first wife) cousin Waraqa b Naufal who is supposed to have translated a part of New Testament in Arabic.
Dashti speculates that Muhammad's childhood experience, his interaction with various follower's of Scriptures coupled with his intense desire to change, led to his belief in his prophethood. He further speculates on the revelations, their timing and the two verses which were supposed to have been put into Muhammad's mouth by Satan and which were later excised from the Quran. He believes that Muhammad's inner doubts may have been the cause of this incident.
Dashti believes that the Quran is badly edited and its contents "obtusely" arranged. The Suras have been arranged according to their length and many Meccan verses are in Medinan Suras and Medinan verses in Meccan Suras. Ali b. Abi Taleb had arranged the verses chronologically, however his copy was lost.
Dashti says that the Quran can not be considered miraculous as far as moral teachings are concerned. Muhammad reiterated the principles which have been conceived many centuries earlier and in many places. The Quranic laws and ordinances were formulated in response to random incidents and petitions from aggrieved persons. These were not sufficient for a large and growing community of Muslims a century and half after his death.
Pre-Islamic Arabs practiced fasting on tenth day of Muharram which coincided with Jewish Yom Kippur. After Muhammad's emigration to Medina the duration of fast was changed to first 10 days of Muharram and after the final breach from Jews, the whole month of Ramadan was reserved for fasting. Around the same time, the direction of prayers was changed from Jerusalem to Mecca.
Through hajj, several national customs of Arabs were endorsed and perpetuated. All the ceremonies of hajj such as wearing of seamless white robe, kissing/touching of black stone, the halt at Arafat, running between Safa and Marwa and the pebble-throwing were practiced in pre-Islamic period. While circumambulating the Kaaba, the call to an idol was replaced by the call to God. There are some minor modifications such as banning circumambulation in nude which pagan Arabs practiced. In regards to polygamy, divorce, adultery, fornication, sodomy etc, the Islamic laws are modification of Jewish laws or reforms of prevailing Arab practice. The obligations of Jihad (Holy war) and Zakat (alms-tax) were necessary for building of a state.
The inhabitants of Yathreb (pre-Islamic name of Medina) had adopted many Jewish practices such as circumcision, ritual ablation, observance of rest day (they chose friday instead of saturday). There were some individuals who shunned idolatory. The preaching of Islam was a not a novelty to the inhabitants of Yathreb.
In first 13 years of Muhammad's teaching, Islam did not prosper in Mecca. Muhammad never deviated from his lofty aim and was immune to inducements, threats, taunts or persecution. Initially Qurashites mostly ignored him and were content in ridiculing him. However, when Muhammad's preaching won over influential members of the community, the hostility increased. The idol-temple of Kaaba and Mecca were the center of annual pilgrimage and drew thousands every year. Their existence and prestige depended on this; they viewed Islam, which called for destruction of the idols as a threat to their livelhood. Muhammad emigrated to Medina when he realized that he was in great danger.
(This is a copy of an SRI post -- Milind Saraph)
Pilgrimage to Mecca and hajj rituals seem to have puzzled some Muslim scholars. The Islamic rituals are slightly modified version of pagan Arab practices.
The pagan Arabs circumambulated the Kaba, called out 'labbakya, O name of one of the idols' (Lat, Ozza, Manat etc). This was replaced by 'labbakya Allahomma labbakya.'
The pagan Arabs had banned hunting in the month of pilgrimage; in Islam the ban is in effect only when the pilgrims are in the state of consecration (ehram).
Sometimes the pagan Arabs circumambulated the Kaba in nude; Islam requires pilgrims to wear seamless robes.
The pagan Arabs did not eat meat of sacrificed animals; Islam permits it.
Pebble throwing at the Satan, halt at Arafat and kissing/touching the black stone have been retained unchanged.
Both hills, Safa and Marwa had been sites of stone idols and pagan Arabs ran between them and kissed the idols for good fortune (baraka). Initially, several believers objected to running between Safa and Marwa until the verse 2:153 was revealed. Even Omar reportedly said he would not have kissed the black stone had he not personally seen the Prophet do so.
Ghazzali says that he found no explanation of hajj ritual.
Abul Ala ol-Maarri exclaimed:
"People come from far corners of the land to throw pebbles (at the Satan) and to kiss the (black) stone. How strange are the things they say! Is all mankind becoming blind to truth"
The verse 9:28 bans non-Muslims from visiting the Kaba. This Surah was revealed after Mecca was conquered.
Ali Dashti speculates that hajj was retained to guarantee a continuation of means of livelihood to Meccans, most of whom became Muslims under duress and were concerned about their prosperity.
Who is the speaker in the Quran?
Dashti says that confusion as to who is speaking in the Quran, God or the Prophet, exists. Sometimes, God speaks commanding the Prophet to "say" (Arabic qol) to the people and at other times, it is the Prophet who speaks. (Page 151)
As an example of the Prophet speaking, he cites first 7 verses of the first surah. In these verses God is praised and asked for guidance. Reading these verses, Dashti seems to be right, God could not be praising himself and asking himself for guidance. (Page 148)
Dashti asserts that this confusion is indisputable. Has this presented a problem for Muslim scholars? If so, how has it been treated/resolved?
(This is a copy of post in SRI)
I have summarized some examples given by Dashti. For copyright reasons
I can not type the whole thing. If anyone believes I have distorted or
misrepresented, please post corrections and an explanation.
With a rich history of Islamic scholarship, I am sure each and every one
these have been explained. Obviously, I can not pass any judgemnent on
any of this.
I wonder how many Muslims are aware that there are some aberrations
(at least superficially) which needed explanations and there was some
debate over this.
1. Surah 74, First verse
"O you who are clad in a cloak", the accepted reading for "clad in
cloak" is moddather, but according to Dashti there is widespread
opinion that it should be motadathther.
2. Surah 4 verse 160
"But those among them who are well-grounded in knowledge, the
believers ..., and the performers of the prayer, and the prayers
of the alms tax,"
The word for "performers" is in accusative case, whereas it ought
to be in the nominative case like the words for "well-grounded",
believers, and the "payers."
3. Surah 49 verse 9
"If two parties of believers have started to fight each other, make
peace between them,"
The verb meaning "have started to fight" is in the plural, whereas
it ought to be in the dual like its subject "two parties."
4. Surah 2 verse 172
"Righteousness (berr) is not that you turn your faces to the east
and the west, but righteousness (berr) is he who believes in God
and the last day .... "
Mohammad b Yazid ol-Mobarrad, the grammarian from the ninth
century suggested that the word should be read as barr. (He was
accused of irreverence and reviled.)
Dashti writes (p 50): "To sum up, more than one hundred Qoranic aberrations
from normal rules and structures of Arabic have been noted. Needless to
say, the commentators strove to find explanations and justifications of
these irregularities."