The ethics
of technology: technological worldview,
pictures, motives values and norms
by prof. Dr. Egbert Schuurman
Professor, Department of Christian
Philosophy, Technological Universities of Delft and Eindhoven and the
Agricultural University of Wageningen
Contents
1.
Introduction
2.
Ethics of technology is necessary
2.1
New situation: Technological Culture
2.2.
Advantages
2.3.
The shadowy side: problems and threats
2.4
Vulnerable technology
2.5
Power over technical power
3. What is ethics?
4.
Spiritual-historical background
5.
The technological worldview
6.
Current ethical recipe (motives,
values and norms)
7.
The cosmological and ethical deficit
8. Enlightenment of the
'Enlightenment": "In your light we see light"
9.
Revoking the cosmological and ethical deficit
10.
A renewed cultural picture
11.
Ethics of responsibility: Revoking the ethical deficit
11.1
Renewing of motives
11.1.1 Science: growth in wisdom
11.1.2 Technology in the service
of individual and societal life: technology as prosthesis
11.2
Other values (ecological, technological and social)
11.3
Integral framework of norms: Simultaneous and plural application
12.
Consequences of reorientation for technology
12.1
Priorities
12.2
Ecological, social or culturally adjusted technologies
12.3
Ecological agriculture
12.4
Genetic manipulation
12.5
Alternative energy. sustainable energy and dematerialization
12.6
Dilemmas
13. Political
consequences
14.
Struggle
Literature
1. Introduction
The current techno-economic development has already realized
many promises and offers many promises for the future. People can, however be blinded by this development,
preventing them to appreciate the seriousness of its potential disastrous
effects. I suspect that this
results from an uncritical attitude toward technology. But it is my conviction that it will progressively
become clear that the most central problem is constituted by the stance
towards or the view of technological development in our culture. Technology, in more than one important way,
contributes to the quality of life, is a statement frequently heard. But it is rarely said that the opposite could
also be true. What is our attitude
toward technology that, on the one hand, identifies with the world but
on the other hand, alienates us from the world? This, in short, is the problem of modern technology. Furthermore, it internally generates the necessary
questions. Thus ethics is very
necessary. Technology is the product of the Judeo-Christian tradition.
Does this tradition say anything about the essential ethics of
technology?
2. Ethics
of technology is necessary
2.1 New
situation: Technological Culture
The necessity of an ethics of technology is not self-evident
to everybody and therefore explanation is required.
Traditional handcraft technology or artisanry was especially characterized
by an inter-human relationship, it was surveyable, its effect was only
noticeable in the short term, with negative impacts small and predictable.
Furthermore, this technology did not put its stamp on culture,
it was a sector of it. Whereas the handcraft technology was imbedded
in the natural order, modern technology has created an artificial 'world'
around us.
In comparison with, for example a century back, we are
in a completely new situation. The
modern, science-drenched technology has unfolded enormously, has left
its imprint on culture and has become a world encompassing system. In modern technology everything is connected
to everything else and thus constitutes the technical milieu. Think away technology and our whole culture
collapses. Especially the connection
between technology and economic enterprises developed at a tremendous
rate. It means that modern technology
and economy are so tightly interwoven that the two have virtually become
one flesh. We could say that
the one cannot exist without the other; that they live as siamese twins.
Therefore, although I request attention for the ethics
of technology, the ethics of economics cannot be separated from it. As we will see, they are connected by an extreme
technical mentality or spirit which generates problems in the ethics
of both. This has to be explained.
Uncertainty about the technical-economical
unfolding is due to the fact that we do not have any experience of this
development. We have been unable
to learn from the past, whilst such lessons would have been extremely
useful, given the problems that we face. Lack of experience, stupidity and ignorance of ways of solving new
problems create tension in an ethics of technology. Specialization and
connection to existing developments add to the urgency of the situation. Technology has penetrated our individual lives
to such an extent that we can scarcely create the distance which is
necessary to evaluate it, not to speak
of changing its direction.
2.2 Advantages
He who compares our times with a few
centuries back notices the great advantages of modern technology. The average lifespan has been increased. Sewage and water purification lead to a healthier
environment. Mechanizing, automation
and robotization have relieved humans from hard manual and routine labour.
The material wealth is unprecedented.
We thankfully make use of many medical techniques that heal diseases.
The hunger of many has been stilled.
The modern means of communication supply us with ample information. Briefly, the possibility to form reality according
to our whishes has increased enormously.
Small wonder that the trumpets
of praise have been blown for technology.
"The wonders of technology", "The age of technology",
"the triumph of technology", were the titles of books and
of slogans some thirty years ago that extolled the abundant blessings
of technology. The world picture
is determined by the possibilities of technology itself. In other words, technology itself increasingly becomes the guidance
for technological development. Everything
that is possible is being applied.
2.3 The shadowy side: problems and threats
In the present culture the shadowy sides of the scientific-technological
development becomes clearer. The technological control motive
penetrates and directs the culture.
It permeates many, if not all, aspects of society and infiltrates
the human experiential world as an matter of course.
Culture is thereby conveniently reduced to that which technology,
science and economy can offer.
Not only is man threatened by overrating
technology and the economy, but nature is also exploited and human society
disintegrates. There is talk
of threats from nuclear weapons
or radioactive waste from nuclear power plants, of the exhaustion of
natural resources, of the extinction of many plant and animal species,
deforestation, siltation and desertification - with loss of food and
rich soils - the depletion of the ozone layer, the emission of exhaust
gases with far-reaching consequences for life and climate, the rapid
and large-scale destruction and pollution of nature, and the accelerating
threat of the over-estimation of genetic manipulation techniques, with
as offshoot the technical possibility the cloning and genetic manipulation
of humans, etc. Finally the latest information and communication techniques
suggest ample information and communication. But in reality there is less face-to-face contact
between people leading to mutual alienation, loneliness and social disintegration.
Western man has, with the passage of time, subjected himself
to limitless technical manipulation and economic exploitation of reality,
but with a massive threat of the destruction of the very basis of human
existence. The current technological development threatens the sustainability of the natural environment and of the
biosphere. The relevant values
are simply ignored.
2.4 Vulnerable technology
The technical development also experiences threats from within.
Large-scale technical developments regularly prove to be vulnerable
as a result of human error or as a result of bad technical functioning,
and confront us with far-reaching consequences. Examples are, inter alia, Chernobil, the chemical disaster in Bhopal, the 'I love
you' virus, etc.
2.5 Power over technical power
While man was formerly especially threatened by nature he now
also has to face the threat of technology.
Through technology man attempts to gain control over everything. The pressing question, however, is: how can
we continue to control technology?
How can we contain and control technical power?
That is an ethical question par
excellence.
3. What is ethics?
There are many definitions of 'ethics'. Luckily they partially overlap one another
resulting in a large measure of agreement despite the differences. In ethics as a science there is reflection
on the good and responsible actions of man.
An ethics of technology must therefore concern itself with man's
good and responsible conduct in and through technology, i.e. man must fulfil the normative aspects of reality within which
technology functions.
Who is man and what constitutes good and accountable
actions? Reactions to the answers
to these questions as well as to the question concerning the place of
technology in the whole of reality, diverge easily.
That concerns the basis of an ethics.
It has to do with differences in philosophical vision and with
the background differences in philosophies
of life and world views. These
differences currently aggravate the task concerning ethics because there
is no unity of vision of man, history, the meaning of technology, culture
and the future. While a common value and norm conception is
required we are confronted by a divergent pluralism. But is it, notwithstanding these differences, possible to discern
a main theme present in the spiritual
background?
It seems
fit to make a small excuris to the so-called empirical turn in philosophy
of technology (see Peter Kroes & Anthonie Meijers (eds). The
Empirical Turn in the Philosophy of Technology, vol. 20, Research
in Philosophy of Technology, Jai Press, Amsterdam, 2000). This turn rightfully distanced itself from an autonomous, threatening,
development of technology. The
technological reality is more complicated.
However, the proponents of the empirical turn divorce 'cases'
from the whole of technical development.
They scarcely pay attention to a structural development of technology
or the positioning of technology in the whole of reality. 'Cases' in other words, do not stand alone. There is coherence in technological development
and also coherence in ethical problems, though this coherence may attain
a special colour in certain instances.
In fact, the diversity of technology requires attention. The ethical problems are not equally pressing
everywhere. In the reformational-philosophical analysis of the structure of technology,
justice has always been done to the variety. The idea of the autonomy of technology as a
massive and unassailable phenomenon in which there is no place for responsibility
has been broken. Technology
takes place in a historical, cultural, social and political context
and different groups busy themselves with different interests and goals
in these frameworks. They each
have an influence on the development of technology, but they cannot
distance themselves from the continuity in the development.
The possibility that they are all controlled by the same spiritual-historical
background, which constitutes an important cause of ethical problems,
must not be ruled out. The philosophers
of the empirical turn back out of the matter easily by pretending the
cases to be free-standing occurrences. People seek solutions for individual cases, referred to as 'the
end of the pipe-line approach'. By
treating symptoms, people displace the problems and no attention is
given to the common root of all the problems.
Viewed ethically, they are stuck with their solutions in the
'labyrinth of technology' (Vandenburg).
Only when we view technological
development as a whole are the individual developments - the cases -
afforded their own specific places.
To my mind both the predominant ethical background, the basic
structure, and the individuality of the technological occurrences have
to be regarded. Orientation
towards one of the poles detracts from the other. Empiricists have through one-sided attention
to individual problems (the tree) lost sight of the tendency in technological
development in total (the forest).
An analysis of the agents which influence the technological development
ignores deeper operating common motives. This results in superficiality,
fragmentation and little coherence.
Profoundness is obtained for the cases by viewing them as interconnected,
to connect then with motives, values and norms, and not to join them
to a description of what man has actually done. In a philosophical -ethical reflection the ethics of specific technological
phenomena is not of prime concern, but rather an encompassing approach
via motives, values and norms which will form the basis for the subsequent
judging of specific technologies. We
frequently cite examples from empiricism without paying attention to
structural roots and backgrounds. Moreover,
specialism provides the possibility to know more and more of less and
less. This has made us vulnerable
in our adjudication of the whole situation. In other words, attention to isolated technological
phenomena can distract from
the main point, namely the ethical question regarding a cultural transformation
within which technology can be afforded a place and appreciation that
differs from what is current.
4. Spiritual-historical
background
In a discussion of the problems and threats of the Technological
Era, people restrict themselves to the symptoms. An in-depth discussion
is necessary in order to include deep-seated and long-standing causes.
I have shown in miscellaneous publications - with reference
to reputable philosophers, that, under the influence of the Renaissance
and in particular the Enlightenment, modern philosophy and modern thinking
became increasingly a scientific-technological
mentality. Man as ' lord
and master' - a term used by Descartes, the father of modern philosophy
- articulates technological rationality by which the natural
sciences and the technical sciences are used as instruments under the
pretension that everything can be manipulated in order to solve problems
- both old and new - relating to man and culture. It was especially
the ideas of Frances Bacon that kept alive the utopia which promised
a return to the lost paradise by means of scientific-technological advance.
The technological control mentality
originates in man's pretence of being autonomous. He desires to strengthen his freedom by means
of scientific-technological command. All problems are considered to be solvable
by this mentality. In a sense
only those problems are recognized that can be solved through science
and technology. All questions relating to spiritual reflection
and religious problems are ruled out. The technological culture therefore is accompanied by secularization,
with spiritual emptiness on a scale previously unheard of. We could say that, behind the mask of modern
technology and of autonomous freedom, a spiritual emptiness hides. The situation is made more serious by the fact
that this is not recognized. The
result is that culture is wholly saturated by technological way of thinking
or the technological mentality. Society
is experiencing it's influence in many sectors.
The whole complex of science, technology and economy is being
influenced by an over-excited technological spirit.
This causes problems. Let me provide two examples: In biotechnology, justice is mostly not done
to life in advance. The technological
model of life disregards life. Small
wonder that genetic manipulation has to deal with so many problems. Another actual example: sometimes people think
that the danger of the Internet is the so-called pollution of information
and that the ethical problems can be solved by a 'clean' net. Yet, here also certain
technological thought processes force behavioral pattern which reduce
the fullness of life. The
thought pattern built into computers influences the uncritical user. He will increasingly use the same mental patterns.
When man is occupied with technology day in and day out, it will
eventually conquer his heart. Therefore, also spiritually, man is becoming
more technological, making him deaf and insensitive to other dimensions. Thus: more information, less meaning; more
interactions, less contact; more information, less wisdom and depth. In other words, more communication, less spirituality.
The overuse of material technology isolates man spiritually.
Stated once more: the advance of the technological mentality
is in our time leading to growing secularization.
5. The technological
worldview
As a result of the absolutization of technological thought
much of reality is lost. That
which does not fit into the technological model, is disregarded or forgotten.
The worldview has been transformed to a technological
worldview by this development. Similar
to the technological development, this worldview is not static. To the contrary, each new technological development
-- e.g. those resulting from discoveries and innovations - make the worldview
dynamic and easier adaptable. The
technological worldview is therefore continually changed by technological
development. It is however a
human construct and functions as a cultural paradigm. It is a type of framework within which people
think and act. It has normative
meaning. Motives, values and
norms are derived from it. It
therefore also forms an ethical framework.
That which can be scientifically known and made technologically
is, as it were, the veracious reality.
It has increasingly marked the development of western culture
and it is also marking the current globalization.
The worldview is therefore
derived from the technological development and has, out of reach of
technology, through technological thought, far-reaching influence even
to the extent that not only the relation to nature and the milieu, but
also human society is stamped or coloured.
It strives to command or control technologically both nature
and society. The technological - economical powers are especially
the driving forces and simultaneously they breathe the air of this technological
mentality.
Actually, the worldview is scientific-technological. It
displays the characteristics of abstract science, regarding its functionality,
universality and rationality. As
such it operates reductionistically and nivellating and sometimes its
influence is even destructive. This
applies to both nature and the milieu (ecosystem and biosphere) as well
as society. The ecological crisis
receives ample attention, but its parallel in societal problems receives
much less.
6. Current ethical recipe (motives, values and norms)
The technological worldview not only causes specific
problems, but is mostly also decisive for the ethical solutions sought. By means of the technological
worldview there is coherence in the current approach. Ethics finds difficulty in freeing itself from the technological system.
The current recipe for the treatment of technological problems
amounts to attempts to investigate 'cases' in order to develop rules
of thumb for the future. Man
seldom goes back to the roots of the problem and to the connection
between problems. This results
in the frequent trading of one problem for another, because people are
caught in a type of technological labyrinth.
The current ethics of technology prevents them from taking risks
by acting in a controlled and cautious way.
I have once called this the technological ethics.
Ethics becomes a technique because people attempt to streamline
and guide technological development.
A 'technological control perspective' then dominates
the ethics of technology. People
limit themselves to unfavorable symptoms of an otherwise boundless developing
scientific-technological control. The problems in technological development is
somewhat softened by this ethics. In
a certain sense this state of affairs confirms - following Habermas
- what can be termed the ideology of technology.
The ideology, inspired by the Enlightenment, implicates viewpoint-restricting
limitations. Fundamental or
essential questions are excluded, for instance questions concerning
the background to technological development, questions regarding the
origin, meaning, motives, values and norms for technology.
I would like to call this partial nihilism.
Changes in the development,
the search for alternatives or even rejection are rarely accounted. In a certain sense people are entangled in
technology, which they try to untangle without providing a well-founded
direction. This imprisonment
or adjustment is reinforced by ICT. In the
process of adjustment it becomes increasingly difficult to adopt a specific
vision of reality, from a certain picture of reality, entailing other
motives, values and norms. The technological or industrial and the post-industrial
society are permeated with strong technological values, attitudes and
ways of thinking.
The main
motive in this fundamental ethical attitude is that of striving
for power over reality. This
power has the pursuance of technical artificiality
as its dominating value.
The concomitant implicit values are those of being lord and master of man, the human passion
for control, technological advancement, the (economic) self-interest
and, in coherence herewith, growing consumption as added-value: that
is to say, benefit for all. No
attention is given to the ecological and social context values.
At most it subsequently receives political attention.
The norms
that follow from the values of the technological worldview are effectiveness,
normalization or standardization, efficiency, success, maximum profit,
with no or insufficient attention given to the cost to humanity, society
and the environment.
We continually encounter more problems in which the technological
worldview and its befitting ethics fail us. This is clear from problems concerned with
sustainability. Sustainability aims to comply with the requirements
of the present generation, without possibly jeopardizing the ability
of coming generations to fulfill their needs.
Why is sustainability under pressure?
The commanding technological worldview dominates the
current economy via a control
model, which from the start, forces one-sided growth.
In this development sustainability cannot be reached. In the context of environmental problems we
may advance one step by means of environmental technology, but this
step is nullified in subsequent development because the step is taken
within the framework of a materialistic economy.
The technological worldview also prevents abatement of the growing
concern over climatic change. Our
way of dealing with creation is preventing the gaining of a new perspective
within which these problems can be lessened.
Werner Heisenberg has drawn an impressive picture of
this situation. "With the seeming limitless expansion of material
power man has arrived in a situation of a captain whose ship was so
well constructed from steel and iron that the needle of his compass
reacted only on the iron mass of the ship and no longer pointed to the
North. With such a ship the correct direction can no longer be established,
it simply circles around or is at the mercy of wind and currents"
(Werner Heisenberg, Das Naturbild
der Heutigen Physik, rde 8, p.22). We have abandoned our culture in favour of this lack of orientation.
Man undoubtedly has received power, but the threatening devastation
increases. Technological advancement per se can turn itself against man and
his environment. This threatening
frequently hides behind the desired superiority of technological effectiveness and economic efficiency.
The ethical reduction contained therein is scarcely recognized.
We saw that the current cultural
view is fed by a technological expectation of salvation and is mentally
and spiritually oriented to technology itself. In addition real questions or a quest for meaning
are excluded and reality becomes a reality to be controlled. A clue is the picture of a continuously self-empowering
technological construction in which reality is not real but has a merely
instrumental value. Thus plants
and animals are largely seen in the light of
their material benefit to humans through science and technology. Even man himself is increasingly seen as 'makeable'.
In addition, the needle of the compass - to return to that picture
once more - points only to man and his technology.
Technological man appears to be the last point of orientation.
7. The cosmological
and ethical deficit
I have just said that the current view of life is fed
by the spirit of the Enlightenment.
This undoubtedly has given us much benefit, but also much evil. Put very generally, I would like to say that
the current approach to technology, in my view, suffers from a cosmological
deficit and an ethical deficit. Reality
is frequently reduced to a scientific-technological controllable reality. That amounts to a positivistic cosmology or
a techno-cosmology. In this
one-sidedness too little justice is done to the many-sidedness of full
reality and to its dependability on and its involvement with the divine
Origin, therefore on its fullness, wholeness, coherence and its transcendental
dependence.
Apart from a cosmological shortfall we also have to face
an ethical deficit. Reality
around man is seen as made of things converted to objects of manipulation. The technological mode of thought reduces everything
to the status of an useful object.
The inherent value and meaning thereof is emptied in the benefit
that man can derive from reality. This
ethical deficits is best characterized as the ethical deficit of love,
because justice is not done to the inherent nature of things. It is clear that, in out time, our involvement with animals is determined
by the technological model.
8. Enlightenment of the 'Enlightenment": "In your light we see
light"
In general, as has been discussed, silence is being maintained
on the deepest background of the current technological culture and on
the present ethics of technology. However,
the motive of the Enlightenment is still dominant. Therefore, when people criticize the Technological
Culture the Enlightenment cannot be ignored. What does that lead to?
If it is true that the crisis of the Technological Culture
resides in man's scientific-technological involvement with nature, this
crisis also points to a crisis in the autonomy postulate of the 'Aufklärung'.
It increasingly becomes clearer that the culture cannot maintain
absolute freedom and absolute controlling power. In
a sense a religious substance is required.
The question as to the nature
of the 'Aufklärung' was answered by the great philosopher Immanuel Kant.
Man has come of age and will not accept any guidance from above
himself. "Have the courage
to avail yourself of your own intellect".
Here Kant did not have in mind growth of knowledge or a spontaneous
will to be free, but the courageous decision to control praxis by means
of scientific knowledge. Man's reason is accepted as controlling instrument.
This means that man wishes to re-create the world according to
his will by means of science and technology.
The rational belief of the Enlightenment connects itself via
technology with happiness and freedom , with optimism, progress and benefit. It closes its eyes for possible ill effects.
In many current cultural-philosophical
critiques the shortcomings of the 'Aufklärung' are pointed out. Increasingly people are is convinced that this
instrumental rationality has, or will have, devastating results. Technology is no longer the liberator in itself,
but is absorbed into the power over man and nature. As such it binds man, destroys nature and threatens
culture. This is why many are
reconsidering the meaning of the Enlightenment without, however, relinquishing
its point of departure. In order
to try and parry the critique on technology people try to supplement
the meaning of 'Aufklärung'. People
require elucidation of the Enlightenment - for
example Adorno and Habermas. Others,
for instance Hastedt, wish for the completion of the project of the 'Aufklärung'. The project of the 'Aufklärung' required a new ecological ethics
and an ethics for the management of systems technology. However, the
project of the 'Aufklärung' does not abandon the autonomy of scientific-technological
man, but intends to expand the ratio to a fuller
or broader, multi-sided rationality with increased scope. Even if people desire a second Enlightenment
in which attention is given to metaphysical
and spiritual questions that have been ignored in due course, they
loyally maintain the Enlightenment's point of departure.
In the Reformational Philosophy we have a tradition of
fundamental criticism of the Enlightenment as a result of the pretension
of human autonomy. Although
we cannot reverse the Enlightenment we will have to acknowledge its
devastating action and to ethically re-schematize its positive results. Can the cosmological and ethical deficit be revoked? This will require an approach different from
current thinking. I would like
to make an appeal for an Enlightenment of the Enlightenment. Or, to put it in biblical terms:
"In your light we see light" (Ps. 36:9). The 'Aufklärung' must itself be lighted up
by the divine light of the Revelation.
That is a way to follow between the technological paradise and
the technological apocalypse. To
again refer to Heisenberg's metaphor of the ship, if the captain desires
to sail in the right direction once more, he will have to orientate
himself by using the stars. Thus
the Technological Culture will again have to be considered with reference
to viewpoints from outside technology.
9. Revoking the
cosmological and ethical deficit
It will become clear that we hold the opinion that the
cosmological and the ethical deficits resulting from a reductionistic
scientific approach to reality, cannot be resolved by another, for instance
expanding scientific approach. However
much systems thinking is presented as a holistic approach, and while
there is appreciation for its merits, it remains an abstract scientific
approach from an anthropocentric position.
A widening of more dimensions, - therefore, a more comprehensive
holistic approach - is necessary. The
whole of reality has to be recognized as given reality preceding science. This reality does not rely on itself but is in all respects dependent
on and involved with the divine Origin.
The most intimate involvement of God with created reality
is characterized by His love. Acceptance
of the unity in love repeals the ethical deficit of love in the current
ethics of technology. Man should
alienate himself from reality in order to approach God in love. Then he could turn to his neighbor in love
as well as to God's reality. It
is not by accident that, in the Christian religion, the
command of love for God and the neighbor contains the essence of all
motives, commands, values and norms.
Also, in technological development, this dual love must unify. This means that from the start everything must be appreciated according
to its nature. Apart from regard
for values and norms this also ensures attention to context-values: the ecological and social values.
We will have to trace what the repealing of the cosmological and ethical deficit means for the
development of technology.
10. A renewed cultural picture
Which picture that preceded science and technology can
help us to see how we can reposition ourselves in technological development?
The cultural philosopher Hans Jonas can be helpful.
Imagine, he says, that we were on the moon.
We would then be impressed by the immenseness of the cosmos. From the moon the extreme unicity of the earth
in the gigantic cosmos will be conspicuous. It is the only green planet in our solar system. A multiplicity of life is present. If we as moon travelers want to survive, we
will have to return to earth. From
the moon, says Jonas, we find to our horror that planet earth is in
danger. The exceptionality of life is threatened by
the present technological-economic development. Change is necessary. Technology
and economy may not threaten life, but must rather serve life.
A responsible cultural development summons a representation
of culture that depicts earth as a garden tended by humans, a garden
as a community-house. Foremost
in that picture is an unbreakable cohesion and the inherent value or
nature of everything. The intrinsic
values must be respected before we involve scientific-technological
activities. Every human activity should begin with caring
association and respectful treatment.
Creation and creature have to be treated according to their nature,
otherwise life will flee. This
is not idolization of nature. On
the contrary, it is a recognition of the caring of the Creator, which
has to be answered by humans. The metaphor of a developing garden does not
mean that some romantic picture is being pursued, but recognizes that
all things are interconnected and have to be, by means of technology
- especially in alliance with economy - directed at occupation of the
garden and through opening up of nature, at maintaining and strengthening
all that live.
The garden metaphor also reflects the alliance and dependability
of man on the whole of creation. Reality
has been given him as a present, he may not be lord and master, but
must act as keeper and minder. He
may develop and reveal creation as we would carefully open a big present. In this way we must treat the present of God's
earth. It means that especially
technology and the economy is taken into service by all that lives.
The picture of the garden also clearly links to the original
meaning of 'economos'. We should
care, cherish, protect and conserve as part
and parcel of harvesting, building and producing. In the cultural paradigm of the controlled
garden, upscaling and cultural acceleration will, in terms of scale
and pace, be transposed to levels that will benefit the coexistence
of man and creation. In the
picture of the garden the limits of the carrying capacity of nature
is respected. Responsible cultural development means living
on the interest of the given capital, but excludes using or depleting
the capital itself. Usufruct
indicates the direction for a more sustainable cultural development. Sustainability is possible within the metaphor
of the garden: this means that
technology together with economy refrain from manipulation, extortion
and pollution, but as the economist Herman Daly of the World Bank put
it, to maintain the fruit-bearing capacity of the earth and thus possibly
increase it and to limit withdrawal to usufruct which has to be offered
to all humans, now and in the future.
A more harmonious development could start in which ecology, technology
and economy are in equilibrium. Technology
and economy will thereby have to be placed in a different ethical context.
This is a start for a new cultural transformation.
It amounts therefore, to a fundamental re-orientation of the
technological-economic order. It allows room for growth that is more proportional
and selective. Apart from technology
and economy in building and producing, more attention is required for
maintenance, for protection, conservation, for guarding and caring. Thereby the diversity of life forms in the
plant and animal kingdoms can be preserved.
Technology and the economy must be developed within the perspective
of the earth as one large garden-city.
We must cling to the original
picture of the garden, while it has to be admitted that the conditions
under which man is allowed to work in it were strongly altered by sin,
the breach between God and man: thorns, thistles and death. But the meaning
of it all beckons: the Kingdom of God.
This struggle is inherent to the position of man. Moreover, what will a human gain if he wins
the whole world, but loses his life, his soul? (Mat.16:26).
11. Ethics of responsibility: Revoking the ethical
deficit
The question that now needs answering is which ethical
approach is the fittest to revoke the described ethical deficit of love
in the current ethics of technology .
Not only the duty or the aim has to be accounted for, also the
motive and the values and norms of the complex world of technology,
as well as the values of the ecological and social context that require
protection.
The two centuries old ethical
approaches - the deontological and the teleological - are no longer
suitable for the dynamic and complex phenomenon of modern technology. Technology is no longer characterized by the
relationship man-tool but has become a dynamic system. Therefore the first approach - deontology or duty ethics - resulted in a
more pragmatic or even pragmatistic
ethics in which former fixed
norms were relativised.
Also the teleological approach no longer satisfies because, in
view of the many harmful consequences in which attention not only need
to be given to the aims, but also the means will also have to be tested. Therefore, people have introduced match game
ethics, which does not differ much from pragmatic ethics because the game rules allow fundamental changes. In a certain sense both approaches eventually
culminated in what I have termed technological ethics. In any case, the traditional ethics is no longer
applicable to technology. This
is the result of the influence of science in technology, and modern
technology is furthermore entwined with economic undertakings. This STE complex has acquired a dynamism and there are so many agents that
a new approach is called for. In
any case, we have to remember world-wide effects, anticipating what
may happen and acting in an interdisciplinary way (Vandenburg). Moreover, the consequences of technology have changed
drastically for the environment we live in.
I believe an ethics of responsibility
is the most appropriate approach for an ethics of technology.
The word responsibility is very apt because it indicates
that everyone who is involved in scientific-technological development
must assume the role of envoy. The
wider meaning is also illustrated by the double foundation of the word
'responsibility'. Everyone involved
in scientific-technological development not only carries accountability,
but must also answer for his actions.
In other words, everyone must indicate on the grounds of which
cultural picture, which motives, values, principles, norms he acted
and made his contribution in the scientific-technological events.
It means that in ethics of responsibility there is scope for
'calling'. 'Calling' especially emphasizes the positive
instruction. While ethics is
associated with 'what may not be allowed' in actual discussions on problematic
development, within the context of 'responsibility ethics' a start has
to be made to place emphasis on the positive.
It is aptly said that, by means of new technological possibilities
to alleviate human suffering or distress, the ethical conception of
possible help changed to an ethical obligation.
In general, a good starting point for an ethics of responsibility
seems that the 'actors' must be aware of the positive scope of their
action in or with technology. They have to publicly give account of their
actions and must also be answerable.
In the first place the point at issue is rendering and keeping
the world habitable, to provide the necessities of life and the alleviation
of need and suffering.
Successively I would like to give brief attention to
the implications of responsibility ethics for motives, values and norms.
11.1 Renewing of motives
We saw, that for the predominant spiritual-historical
background the spiritual driving force for technology and the sectors
marked by it, namely agriculture, economics, politics, etc. is the power motive or the control motive. This central motive differentiates itself in
science as the motive of 'knowledge is power' and in technology as the
motive of technology for the sake of technology, or of the motive of
technological perfection: what can be made must be made.
The harvest produced in industrial agriculture by unbridled scientific-technological
power eventually leads to exploitation and overcropping.
The conglomeration of cultural powers are strengthened via
materialistic politics and via
a materialistic economy focused solely on money power and material gain. This convergence of powers proves to disrupt
nature and culture. It is illusionary to think that these powers
will serve values other than those based on growth in power, upscaling
and concentration.
In the perspective of the garden-development man should
direct his cultural activities away from himself in love for God and
the neighbour; then the motives for the different cultural activities
will acquire new contents instead of the central motive of power, in
which man circles around himself in self- interest.
A central motive of love will provide a reference direction. What follows is a divergence of the different
cultural activities. This implies
that in science the pursuance of wisdom should be the prime objective
and in technology building and conserving.
Therewith the different responsibilities of science and technology
are guaranteed. This divergence
is the way to achieve a meaningful flourishing of cultural activities.
I would like to explicate these authentic values for
science and technology.
11.1.1 Science: growth in wisdom
Modern science is under the
influence of the technological control mode
of thought. It is not
technological because of the results of its applications, but it is
technological because it observes reality only in the light of calculability
and predictability and because it is only interested in commanding and
controlling reality. This must be understood correctly. Many scientists would say that, due to interest in truth, they want to get to know
reality better. That does not
change my statement that modern science 'im grossen und ganzen', as
a result of the predominant cultural motives and cultural powers became
technological in core and character.
Only when recognition of the Origin and the meaning of
reality precedes and colours the practicing of science - the viewing
of the given reality as a maintained garden - will an instrumentalistic
science be rejected and will science be positioned in a correct relationship
to the full experiential reality. It
has to be integrated with the full experiential reality, thereby deepening
experiential knowledge. On other
words, scientific knowledge will then serve growth in wisdom.
In this way science will promote an increasingly comprehensive
and wise insight. Reality is
not surrendered to a functionalism and to a man-defined meaning of reality,
as for example the benefit that the functional reality has for materialistically
oriented man. Put briefly, science
serves a comprehensive insight and strengthens human responsibility
with a view to everything that relates to reality as a developing garden.
11.1.2 Technology in the service of individual and societal
life: technology as prosthesis
What I have said of science in general,
also applies to technological science, to technology. It may also not serve as instrument of scientific-technological
control. This will not rob technology
of its distinct character or meaning. Technology should not be the result of an instrumental
use of science or application of science, as is frequently said.
Those are visions that will rather derail technology or that
will ignore this derailment instead of providing room for justified
technology development.
Similar visions also diminish the place of invention in technological development.
It has been said that invention is the heart of technology.
It means that human creativity must not allow science to restrict
it, but must be fed and even stimulated by old and new scientific knowledge. It would be useful to, even in the training
of engineers, pay more attention to justified creativity in invention
and innovations in order to render technology more serviceable to life. The motive in technology should be usefulness
to life and societ. Technology
must, as it were, both individually and collectively, serve as a prothesis.
Then man will retain a say over technology.
Not only small scale technology has to be considered.
Therefore, wherever possible, subterranean building should be
suggested if the milieu can thereby be saved, and human society will
experience less discomfort.
11.2 Other values (ecological, technological and
social)
For a justified technology the ethical challenge is finding,
not only true motives, but also milieu values, technological values
and social values.
The ecological
values include the preservation of biodiversity, clean water, soil
and air, the fertilization of soils, and improving the life milieu. The biosphere must remain intact and therefore
a war must be waged against dangerous emission gases.
To the technological
values belong habitability, the provision of basic necessities of
life, for instance food and health, a battle against suffering and illness,
a fight against threats from nature and a focus on healing, sustainability,
lessening physical work burdens, etc.
Beyond our physical wants, real meaning fulfillment is found
in spiritual growth, personal relations and communal life.
The social values
are those of communal meaning, sobriety, justice, considerateness, of
strengthening information and communication and therefore, social welfare
in general. It is too daring
to suggest that 'rest', 'having time' and spiritual revival must also
be mentioned here as the unused chances of modern technology?
11.3 Integral framework of norms: Simultaneous and plural application
With reference to technological development I have up
to now given attention to the cultural picture, motives and values that
have to be considered: technology
has to be serviceable to a great number of life forms, befitting a healthy
garden development. A connection
with the existing situation must always be sought.
Science,
technology and economy developing within the perspective of the earth
as a habitable garden do not imply wasteful and threatening technology
and a throw away economy but technology serviceable to life and an economy
of usufruct. Such a culture
is characterized by the striving for harmony with nature; nature and
technology, garden and city are not in competition with one another. Such a culture is characterized by real sustainability
that is, as stated earlier, not possible in the current technological
world picture. As a result of
the present motives this model knows only an internal dynamic of boundlessness.
The garden model does real service to sustainability and stability.
Simultaneously there is room for economic growth in the sense
of a steady state development. Ecology
and economy are in equilibrium with one another when the natural cycles
are not disrupted and the source in use is prevented from drying out. It is the culture of moderation and consciousness
of boundaries that may not be overstepped. In such a culture a sustainable situation is
established in the sense that for life and community the use of God's
given possibilities will also be possible in future.
Apart from the link with nature and culture man has to
attempt to steer in the correct normative direction under influence
of the proper motive. In order
to test the correctness of the direction it is necessary to satisfy
a large number of normative principles and related norms.
The normative principles apply not only to technology but also
to the manifold relations of this technology with nature and society.
The normative principles are derived from the analysis
of structure in the Reformational Philosophy and forms a guide for responsible
technological development. The
norms are the cultural-historical norms, the norms of effectiveness,
the norms of information and communication, of harmony, of efficiency,
of caring and respect. In my
publications I have given it much attention (see Perspectives on Technology and Culture, Dordt Press, Sioux Center, U.S.A./Institute for Reformational
Studies, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 1995, p. 96-101, and Faith,
Hope and Technology, Piquant Press, England, 2002).
Both a broad approach and
a fixed direction will be implied by the way of the normative approach. The way begins with the acceptance of the previously
mentioned motives from which science and technology have to be practiced,
namely that of wisdom as well as building and conservation. 'Wisdom'
and 'conservation' are frequently forgotten.
Had this not been so, biology and ecology would long ago have
been accepted as fundamental sciences
for technological science. Indeed,
with 'conservation' the preservation of nature and the maintenance of
a healthy biosphere are intended. The
present technological development frequently results in the technicization
of nature. Frequently the notion
that technology needs a more comprehensive scientific basis is absent. This basis makes a contribution to growth in
wisdom and results in a creative and cautious conduct in modern technology,
with a view to serviceableness to life.
Then the previously introduced idea of culture that views earth
as a garden to be developed, with accompanying values, is served.
12. Consequences
of reorientation for technology
I now wish to treat the consequences of the new approach
to culture. Thereto it has to
be remembered that until now I have placed two 'ideal-type' cultural
paradigms or perspectives against one another.
In reality no such absolute contrast exists.
From the metaphor or perspective of earth as a garden
a clear relationship can be found.
The technological worldview parasitizes on reality as created
reality. It causes disturbances from which it can never
free itself. That is the reason
why much flexibility can be observed within the worldview which people
increasingly seem to find lacking.
Luckily there are instructive inconsistencies to reflect on.
Conversely:
those who recognize a created reality, are still frequently bound
to the technological worldview. This
complicated situation makes clear that the choice of the correct direction
is a never-ending mandate that implies a struggle and excludes indolence.
Although the stressing of another perspective remains
important for the philosopher, it would be legitimate to enquire about
the consequences for praxis of this ethical-philosophical view and about
the differences from those views which are currently held.
To begin with the latter:
the outlined perspective and the motives and norms must sensitize
us for other possible developments. The contributory considerations have to be
reported. The reorientation
in technology requires, as has been said, human and social values, animal
values, ecological values and values of the biosphere.
These values are still under pressure.
New technologies provide opportunities for directional change.
12.1 Priorities
It is common
in science and technology to strive for the remarkable. This leads to violation of justice by giving
less attention to technologies that could help people in their struggle
against hunger and illness. It
is a crying shame to see that possible solutions for these problems
receive less attention and money than money-squandering prestigious
projects concerned with astronautics, such as space flights to far-off
planets. These enterprises are interesting but should
we not rather fulfill our ethical commitments by re-priotorizing? To name another example of injustice, should
we not say that our given raw materials require an equitable redistribution
in order to allow the poor and needy to share in them? This prioritizing will confirm that there is enough for everyone:
"There is enough for every need, but not for every greed".
Explanation: The technological
world picture summons a technological expectation of salvation that
marks economic development. Because
technological development and economic growth mutually miss every opportunity
for equitable distribution, poverty and hunger are expanding in the
Third World. The growth in trade
in between the USA, Europe and Japan is still increasing, while it is
receding amongst other countries. The
four leaders in the new economy have a greater income per annum than
48 poor countries. The increasing
concentration of economic power has, apart from many advantages, also
numerous disadvantages. In agriculture
we experience loss of fertile soils and an increase in new pathogens. Irresponsible genetic manipulation intensifies
this process, while people aim for the opposite. Loss of biodiversity is dangerous for sustainable
agriculture in future. Therefore,
tenableness and sustainability come into question.
12.2 Ecological, social or culturally adjusted
technologies
From within the
stated motives modern technology should join with the given situation
in which man, culture, nature, milieu and, for example the landscape,
find themselves. Therefore,
modern technology must be ecologically responsible, and therefore be
adapted technology. Where, in
the mean time, disruptions have occurred, as much repairing as possible
has to be done. It definitely does not imply a request for reversion
to handicraft technology. The adapted technology, in comparison with
current development, will have to undergo broadening. This differentiation in technological development will of essence
also have to have a clear cultural dimension.
Technology should not come into conflict with the condition of
cultural development and its rich variation, but must join it in its
development in order that the adapted technology may simultaneously
enrich this culture. It is a pity that, in the developing countries,
we have to report the contrary. In
these countries modern technology frequently leads to a break with existing
culture.
Also in industrial countries serious problems are frequently
encountered, for instance between technology and nature. Sometimes waste products are very damaging
to man and nature. It has to
be realized - by the engineer as technological scientist and, in the
first place, by technicians - that dangerous waste materials do not
belong in responsible technology. It
is the duty of engineers to find solutions for waste products.
I therefore find it a pity that the influence of Schumacher,
with his call for the wider application of intermediary or small technologies,
receives little attention. A
caricature has been made of him. Schumacher
did not imply a return to primitive and pre-scientific technology, but
wanted a technology that combines with nature, with culture and a technology
that fits the human scale. Therefore,
subject to external boundaries and human restrictions we have mighty
powers and forces at our disposal, but we remain dependent on fragile
ecosystems. This is frequently
not considered by existing technological-economical forces, with known
serious consequences. Therefore
we must, with a view to a healthy future, maintain that a creative,
inventive - therefore with room for invention and innovation - technology
is required that is economically productive, that is ecologically and
culturally adjusted, socially fair and which offers personal fulfillment
(Barber, 25). It will even be possible to integrate these technologies with computer
technology or the Internet because by means of these technologies decentralization
of power rather than its concentration is possible. When our technologies provide us with more
power, especially the vision to serve and use it with wisdom, must be
invigorated.
12.3 Ecological agriculture
he problems of industrial agriculture are so massive
that the outline sketched above could become real, unless a switch is
made to biological or ecological agriculture.
If agriculture does not commit itself to an almost divine worship
of nature - therefore not characterized by naturalism - it will be increasingly
accepted as the problems of industrial agriculture increase.
In industrial agriculture we are frequently guilty of
technologizing. On the one hand
modern technology leads to lower production costs, but on the other
hand the increased production leads to damage to the farmer, animals,
nature and the milieu. Surplus production causes uncertainty in agriculture
with respect to future possibilities, loss of animal welfare, over-fertilization,
impoverishment and pollution of the soil, new sicknesses of the soil,
disturbance of the landscape, pollution of the milieu, loss of biodiversity
and a bleak future for rural areas. While, in agriculture, a live reality is involved, we have been
viewing it as inorganic. Agriculture
in the grip of the scientific-technological control ideal, has been
divorced from the ecological, biotic and cultural context.
In biological and ecological agriculture people want
to repair the good relationship. Qualitatively,
good products and milieu profit can go together. In this agriculture there is no relapse to
earlier periods, but, with a qualitatively higher input of biology and
soil science people will involve themselves more wisely with soils,
plants and animals. The fertility
of soils is hereby promoted.
12.4 Genetic manipulation
The absence of a normative framework for new technologies
is especially evident in the introduction of genetic manipulation of
plants, animals and humans. Genetic
manipulation must be treated more critically and must be ethically and
juridically curtailed. The present
development is unpredictable and risky and possibly irreversible in
its negative consequences. A
model different from the technological model must be used when living
organisms are involved. The
best would be to develop an organic paradigm for the judging of new
possibilities. Paradigm switching will already be better because
the organic model has life as its point of departure, while the technological
model ignores life in principle.
In general I would honour
the ethical 'no, unless' as a principle for the possibilities of genetic
manipulation of plants animals and humans.
That 'no' must prevent that genetically manipulated plants cause
sickness or natural disturbances or loss of bio-diversity. Should the introduction of genetic manipulation be contemplated,
then people must make a reasoned appeal to the 'unless'. From the start it will have to be considered
to make the developers of the technology responsible for the risks involved.
This means that politics must furnish an ethical screening framework.
It is clear that when people
consider genetic manipulation of humans the 'unless' will only apply
to the level of organs. Genetic
manipulation via the nucleus, which will involve the whole human, must
remain prohibited. Where animals
are involved, for instance in the production of medicines, the 'unless'
can have a wider interpretation.
12.5 Alternative energy, sustainable energy
and dematerialization
When we, on the one hand, see the relativeness of science
and technology and, on the other hand, the existing dangers, we become
more creative in the development of alternatives. Thus we develop energy sources that renew themselves, e.g. wind
and solar energy. By not allowing
loss of material we advance the possibilities of recycling. Life cycles of products will be controlled
to the extent that almost 100% of the raw materials will be recycled. Process technology can make an important contribution
to this development, e.g.
the generation of clean energy from refuse burning installations. Process technology will also develop new energy
carriers, e.g. hydrogen, photo
cells, biomass, wind, etc. The
change to sustainable raw materials produced by agriculture becomes
possible due to the more efficient application of biological, biochemical
and chemical processes. Separation
technology, based on hugely improved fundamental process science plays
a key role in these developments. Consideration
can also be given to dematerialization of energy streams:
solar energy is directly converted to electricity and/or hydrogen.
12.6 Dilemmas
In conclusion: Dilemmas can become acute when
technology is re-orientated. Research
aimed at rendering safe the radio-active wastes from nuclear power stations
must continue with a view to using these facilities responsibly. These plants will, however, also have to be
controlled more effectively. Energy
generation can be considered from sustainable sources in contrast with
the fossil fuel currently used. As
long as radio-active wastes cannot be made safe technologically, nuclear
energy will remain very dangerous.
13. Political consequences
Before we conclude, it is necessary to make one further remark
about the context in which the development of technological science
and modern technology takes place.
Within a 'free market economy' the sketched ethical context must
be followed if people understand 'freedom' as 'freedom with responsibility'. Reality, however, teaches us that economic
power favours or even strengthens technicism and technisization. Many people look towards politics to counter
this. But materialistic politics
also strengthens the same process.
But involving politics is the right way to place 'derailments'
on the agenda because the running of the state concerns everyone and
the state also has the power to restrict economic enterprises.
Politics must, however be tuned to the sketched normative context
and must, according to the nature of politics, focus on law and public
justice. In connection with
the present dislocated situation the brakes will have to be applied
to the technicization process. Via
politics people can choose another direction for technology, for a broadly
normated and differently constituted technology, friendlier toward the
milieu, nature, animals and culture.
Ethically just actions are then juridically enforced.
It has further to be acknowledged that such national politics
can only be effective provided it is - given our globalizing culture
- based on law and public justice and supported in the international
political arena. The prophetic message of Amos is of current
interest: "But let justice
roll on like a river, righteousness like a never-failing stream"
(Amos 5:24).
14. Struggle
Finally I hope that I have not given the impression that the
sketched perspective can be fully realised by us. It will be enlightening during cultural problems and cultural threats.
Thorns and thistles will continue to accompany our work.
Until, through God's intervention, the developed earth, once
characterised by distortion, will be transformed to the divine garden-city
(Rev. 21:9-22:5) where men will be revealed as sons of God, freed to
the glory of the freedom of children of God (Rom. 8).
In a unexpected way it will then be clear that the work in science
and technology, in spite of man himself, will be involved in recreation. That perspective gives hope and places us under
obligations. The hope and obligations
present an inspiration for another ethics in which people are asked
to take their responsibility to seek the meaning of technology, not
in isolation, but contained in the full meaning of reality. That sketched ethical perspective continues
to inspire. This ethics must
be told and heard in our technological world.
Literature:
Ian Barber, Ethics
in an Age of Technology, Harper. San Francisco. 1993.
Paul Durbin (ed.), Technology and Responsibility — Society for Philosophy
and Technology. Reidel, Dordrecht, 1987.
Heiner Hastedt, Aufklärung und Technik — Grundprobleme einer Ethik
der Technik, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main, 1991.
Graham Houston, Virtual Morality — Christian Ethics in the
Computer Age, Leicester, Apollos/IVP. 1998.
Hans Jonas,
The Imperative of Responsibility. In Search of an Ethics for the Technological
Age, Chicago: Chicago Press, 1984.
Melvin Kranzberg (ed.), Ethics in an Age of Pervasive Technology, Westview Press/Boulder,
Colorado, 1980.
Peter Kroes and Anthonie Meijers (eds.), The Empirical Turn in the Philosophy of Technology,
vol 20, Research in Philosophy of Technology, Jai Press, Amsterdam e.a.,
2001.
Magaret Mead, Michael Polanyi, a.o, Christians in a Technological Era, Seabury,
New York, 1966.
Carl Mitcham (ed.), Ethics and Technology -- Research in Philosophy and Technology, vol.
9, Jai Press, London, 1989.
Günther Rohrmoser, Landwirtschaft in der Ökologie- und Kulturkrise, Gesellschafl für
Kulturwissenschaft, Bietigheidm/Baden, 1996.
Ernst F. Schumacher, Small is beautiful, Blond & Briggers, London 1973.
Ernst F. Schumacher, A Guide For the Perplexed, Jonathan Cape. Ltd, 1977
Egbert Schuurman, Perspectives on Technology and Culture, Dordt Press, Sioux Center,
U.S.A./Institute for Reformational Studies, Potchefstroom, South. Africa,
1995.
Egbert Schuurman,: Faith, Hope and Technology , Piquant Press, 2002.
Hugo Staudinger, Geschichte kritischen Denkens. Christiana Verlag, Stein am Rhein,
2000.
Paul Tillich, The
Spiritual Situation in Our Technical Society, Scribner, New York.
1986.
Willem H. Vandenburg, The Labyrinth of Technology., Toronto, University of Toronto Press,
2000.
Robert A. Wauzzinsky, Discerning Prometheus - The Cry for Wisdom in Our Technologica1 Society, London, Associated University
Press, 2001
*)
About Egbert Schuurman:
Adress:
Karel
Doormanweg 7
3621
JV Breukelen
The Netherlands
Email:
e_schman@euronet.nl
Egbert Schuurman (1937), studied Civil Engineering at the
Technological University of Delft and Philosophy at the Free University
of Amsterdam; is Professor in Reformational Philosophy at the Technological
Universities of Delft and Eindhoven and at the Agricultural University
of Wageningen; is a Member of the Senate of the Dutch Parliament. Main
publications in English are: Technology and the Future -- A Philosophical
Challenge, Wedge, Toronto, 1980; Reflections on the Technological
Society, Wedge, 1983.2; Technology in
Christian-Philosophical Perspective, Potchefstroom, 1981;
Information Society: Impoverishment or enrichment of culture,
Potchefstroom, 1984; Christians in Babel, Paideia Press, Ontario,1987;
The Future: Our Choice or Gods Gift?, Exile Publications, Wellington,
New Zealand, 1990; Perspectives on Technology and Culture, Pro
Rege Press (forthcoming);co-author of Responsible Technology,
Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1986; Faith, Hope and Technology, Piquant, England,
2002. Several of these publications
are translated in the Korean, Japanese or Chinese language.
He is a doctor of honour of the
University of Potchefstroom, South Africa.
