Castles have been permanent fixtures embedded in the Irish landscape since the early 12th century.  They vary in size, style, building materials, function, and defensive features.  The term ‘castle’ includes structures built of earth, timber, and stone, which can be found in all corners of the island.  The scope of this paper is not large enough to provide a comprehensive description of all the major types in detail; rather, this is an overview of earthenwork and timber structures, great stone castles, tower-houses, and fortified houses.

The first series of castles in Ireland consisted of earth and timber features.  These began appearing near the start of the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 A.D., which brought such leaders as Strongbow in Leinster, Hugh de Lacy in Meath, John de Courcy in the north, and others in Louth, and lasted steadily until 1225 (Leask 1995:7).  These castles were built hastily to establish territorial claims and were later replaced by stone castles.  Initially, people of all social strata could afford to invest in such structures.

A prominent type in this category is the motte, which sometimes has a bailey attached.  A motte is a large mound of earth, probably with a base of natural height, with a flat top and a wooden stockade surrounding the perimeter.  The height of this mound along with an enclosed wooden tower offered the motte’s defense.  A bailey is a lower earthen platform that is located on one side of the motte, and it usually has a fosse or ditch that surrounds both it and the motte (Sweetman 1995:9).  Baileys housed soldiers, retainers, and animals, while the motte was reserved for lords or knights.  A wooden drawbridge that sometimes spanned a water-filled ditch connected these two.  The motte was also another line of defense should the bailey be captured, but these structures lacked other strategic facets such as maintenance of the enclosing banks and ditches, and a closed entrance (McNeill 1997:8).

These early castles came with the arrival of the Normans and their journey may have been made to spread the growing Christian church (McNeill 1997:7).  After new fiefs were conquered, inexpensive structures were quickly built to mark the territory and guard important routes (Sweetman 1995:7).   Only after these new owners had better organization, security, and funding could they begin building stone castles.

The next wave of castles was brought about by an era of true military expression, inspired by the Anglo-Normans, beginning around 1180 and lasting until approximately 1310 (Sweetman 1995:8).  The stone castles varied greatly in size and layout, depending on strategic requirements, building materials, and resources of labor and funding (Leask 1995:77).  The large stone walls were a defense against invaders but also against the weather, offering a place of security for the kings, the lords, and their families.  The ruler’s power and prestige were displayed in the originality of the building; uniformity was not the aim.  Differences are apparent in the existence and style of the keep.

The best and largest castles were built in the east, and the first of these castles was Trim (See Figures 1 and 2).  Built by Walter de Lacy in County Meath on the west side of the River Boyne, Trim Castle is the largest Anglo-Norman fort in Ireland, enclosing over three acres of land (Sweetman 1995:11).  The first building phase began in 1175 with the donjon, or large central keep, the northwest gatehouse, and a few towers (See Figures 3 and 4).  The thick walls of the towers (up to eleven feet) allow passages and stairways to access different floors.  The main keep is square with four smaller square towers projecting from each corner (Leask 1995:32).  During the second phase of building, in 1195, the keep was heightened and large wooden galleries were added to the outside of the walls.  In 1204, the keep reached its final height (Sweetman 1995:10).  Trim and other large fortresses cannot give the full picture of what they once looked like since impressive castles would have been painted and had wooden galleries, structures, and roofs that have since deteriorated.  These castles were most likely not used as permanent residences since families like the de Lacys spent most of their time in Dublin, where they had flushable toilets and running water (Sweetman 1995:11).

A well-known castle with a polygonal keep is Shanid, County Limerick (See Figure 5).  The remains of a keep with a circular interior can be found on a pre-existing motte, which is surrounded by a fosse and outer bank (Leask 1995:42).  The natural hillcock provides support for the stone structures.  Part of another polygonal keep is located within the enclosure, and a D-shaped bailey also exists with its own rampart and fosse (Leask 1995:43).  The curtain walls are five feet thick and still have remaining battlements and loopholes.

Remarkable stone castles became more frequent as settlements appeared and lords needed more protection or a stronger private residence (Sweetman 1995:36).  These castles also served as a show of allegiance to the English crown; some think this shows an effort of England to conquer Ireland, but through this period, Ireland was given an outlet to be tied to the social and economic lifestyles of Western Europe (McNeill 1997:3,75).  Ireland adopted the practice of ruling lords, designs of residences, and styles of defensive structures, allowing these stone structures to dominate the landscape and define the physical limits of power.

Although design and organization vary, there are typical characteristics of the Irish tower-house.  The outer doorway is often located near one corner of the rectangular stone structure and might be protected by a yett, or iron grill, that could be pulled up or across by an interior chain.  The door would also be barred from the inside.  Upon entering, one would find a small chamber with possible murder-holes above, from which intruders could be stopped or at least annoyed.  Access to a spiral staircase to the higher levels tends to be to the side of the near corner and could be closed off by a door to act as a secondary barrier.  Forward would be a barrel-vaulted ground floor.  The first floor usually included a hall and latrine, with private chambers in the floors above.  The highest level consisted of a wall walk that passed between gable ends and battlements.  Machicolations (projecting structures from which arms could be cast) were common over the doorway for additional protection.  Windows were usually plain, but became more open and elaborate, as in the case of the ogee (or double-curved) design, at the higher levels (Sweetman 1999:139-143).  Although not all tower-houses have them, circular angle towers at opposite corners are of typical design, usually housing the stair in one and the garderobe chutes in the other, and often rose above battlement level (See Figures 6 and 7).  However, zero, one, three, and four angle towers should not be considered altogether rare.  Later examples become less functional for defensive means as more structural luxuries are apparent.

The tower-house is the most common, but probably least understood, classification of Irish castles.  The origin of this structure is a questionable matter.  The most recognized cause of the spread of the Irish tower-house dates to 1429, where King Henry VI made an open offer of £10 to any man in Pale (Dublin, Kildare, Louth, and Meath counties) who wished to build a castle within the following ten years.  Furthermore, the dimensions of this structure were to be 20 ft. by 16 ft. with a height of at least 40 ft.  Coincidentally, there are many examples of such tower-houses in the east half of the island, while the west often bears larger, more complex ones.  However, it must be recognized that tower-houses have been dated as far back as the early 14th century.  Additionally, the majority of the 14th century examples are found in strategic locations of the Pale, making it evident that these were intended for defensive means as well.  Thus, it has been contended that the tower-house served as a less expensive compromise between large stone castles and manor houses (Sweetman 2000:263).  Tower-houses date no later than the very beginning of the 17th century, giving approximately 300 years to the construction and widespread occupation of over 1000 such buildings.  Although tower-houses tend to follow these basic trends, one obvious morphological variation is the presence of a bawn or protected courtyard.  This feature is often found in combination with later and larger tower-houses.  Barryscourt Castle of County Cork is one such example (See Figures 8 and 9).  Barryscourt is roughly rectangular with a four-story tower-house, dating to the mid-16th century, occupying the Southwest corner of the compound.  Within is a barrel vault that reaches up through the first-floor level (two storeys high).  The second floor holds a main room that is better lit than the two floors below by two- and three-light mullioned (vertically split) and transomed (horizontally split) windows.  The west wall bears a carved fireplace.  A chapel, which is unusual for tower-houses, is also found in its northeast tower.  A separate staircase provides access to the private chambers above, which have fireplaces and garderobes.  But what is distinctive at Barryscourt from most other tower-house complexes is the large hall that occupies the rest of the west side of the castle, stretching more than 50m in length (O’Keeffe 1997:14-18).  The rest of the quadrangle is composed of a bawn wall that stations defensive turrets in the remaining two corners.

The tower-house appears to have served as a small, yet relatively well-defended, residence for wealthy landowning families of Gaelic and Old English decent.  There exists structural evidence that defense was still a major concern in the lawlessness of medieval Ireland of this time.  The tower-houses provided means for storage, heating, waste management, and living accommodations.  The luxuries within and structural design without advanced as the need for protection and willingness to house internal defenses decreased, as is seen in the lessening of defensive mechanisms among the successive tower-houses.

As stronger outer defenses came to replace “in-residence” protection, accommodations became more commodious (Sweetman 1999:175).  This design became the fortified house.  They were usually symmetrical, with large mullioned and transomed windows, and consisted of 3 storeys and an attic.  Although rectangular form still held the norm, L- and U-plans are seen as well (Sweetman 1999:189).  Bartizans at the corners and machicolations over the main entrance lingered, while most other defense mechanisms moved outward to the bawn walls with an accompanying gatehouse and mural towers.  Although the area of direct occupation increased, the structure itself is lacking with regard to the complex integration of living and defensive features seen in the tower-house design.  Stronghouses are yet less impressive in this regard.  They were usually only two storeys of rectangular design (sometimes T-shaped), bearing less prominent chimney stacks, with the most common remnant of defense being ground-floor slit opes, while the first floor increases in livable space, often holding a fireplace and larger windows.  A well-fortified bawn is almost always present, as most battlements disappear from the direct residence (Sweetman 1999:193-4).  While stronghouses are considered contemporary with the fortified houses of the 16th and 17th centuries, their main point of construction was limited to the early 17th century.

A prime example of a fortified house is Burncourt, County Tipperary (See Figure 10).  Completed in 1641 on lands granted to Sir Richard Everard by Charles I, this castle’s inhabitation was short-lived as the Parliamentary Army burned it in 1650 due to Everard’s royalist support (Reeves-Smyth 1995:83).  The structure has a rectangular body of 25m by 10m, with 4 highly defensive gabled corner towers of 7.5m on each side (Salter 1993:99).  There are 26 gables in all.  A timber guardwalk once existed to move between towers, while numerous gun loops, predominantly overlooking the main and side doorways, serve as adequate protection as it is without a bawn.  One entire storey consists of state rooms, while bedrooms were located in the corner towers.  Burncourt has 5 storeys in all with its basement and attic.

While fortified houses and stronghouses still kept sufficient defense capabilities, such features were placed further away from the main residence than at the time of tower-houses.  This brief period served as a transition from the well-fortified castles to more domestic manors of years to follow.  Sir Everard’s story itself provides testimony to the need for maintaining basic fortifications.  However, the trends of increased luxury and limited defenses give evidence for the decrease in enacted unrest and general lawlessness of Ireland.

When one tries to piece together the history of those who lived in castles, the lack of recorded data is an obstacle.  The references to builders, buildings, and any plans or illustrations are minimal (Leask 1995:3).  However, well-informed reconstructions of these sites offer a means by which one may track the evolution and growth of castle building.  As a general trend, castles became more commodious and luxurious as the medieval period progressed.  Particular advancements and technologies, such as aspects of defense, came about as needed.  Irish castles were greatly influenced by the English invaders, but their subsequent transformations serve as a reflection of the domestic cultural influences of medieval Ireland.  While capturing past times in their form, the castles of Ireland remain timeless in their beauty.

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